Phishing in the criminal law of the Republic of Kazakhstan: legislative gaps and law enforcement challenges

With rapid digital change, phishing has become one of the most common forms of cyber fraud. This article explores challenges in its criminal law qualification in Kazakhstan, pointing out legislative gaps that complicate accurate assessment of acts committed through information technologies. In practice, such actions fall under different Criminal Code articles, reducing consistency and preventive effectiveness. Case analysis highlights difficulties in distinguishing criminal elements and proving intent when electronic resources are the main tool. Comparison with foreign practice shows that many countries already treat phishing as an independent crime, enabling clearer classification and earlier intervention. The study applies formal legal analysis, comparative research, and review of judicial practice. This methodology helps identify core problems and supports practical recommendations. The authors argue for amendments to the Criminal Code of Kazakhstan, including explicit recognition of phishing as network fraud with a clear definition of its features. Implementing these proposals would unify enforcement, improve judicial predictability, and strengthen protection of citizens in the digital environment. The findings hold theoretical and practical significance, advancing criminal law theory and supporting effective measures against cybercrime.

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